Enamel Structure and Composition

Enamel is the most mineralized tissue of the body, forming a very hard, thin, translucent layer of calcified tissue that covers the entire anatomic crown of the tooth. It can vary in thickness and hardness on each tooth, from tooth to tooth and from person to person. It can also vary in color (typically from yellowish to grayish white) depending on variations in the thickness, quality of its mineral structure and surface stains. Enamel has no blood or nerve supply within it. It is enamel’s hardness that enables teeth to withstand blunt, heavy masticatory forces. Enamel is so hard because it is composed primarily of inorganic materials: roughly 95% to 98% of it is calcium and phosphate ions that make up strong hydroxyapatite crystals. Yet, these are not pure crystals, because they are carbonated and contain trace minerals such as strontium, magnesium, lead, and fluoride. These factors make “biological hydroxyapatite” more soluble than pure hydroxyapatite.^1-3

Approximately 1% to 2% of enamel is made up of organic materials, particularly enamel-specific proteins called enamelin, which have a high affinity for binding hydroxyapatite crystals. Water makes up the remainder of enamel, accounting for about 4% of its composition.

The inorganic, organic, and water components of enamel are highly organized: millions of carbonated hydroxyapatite crystals are arranged in long, thin structures called rods that are 4 µm to 8 µm in diameter. It is estimated that the number of rods in a tooth ranges from 5 million in the lower lateral incisor to 12 million in the upper first molar.^1-3 In general, rods extend at right angles from the dento–enamel junction (the junction between enamel and the layer below it called dentin) to the tooth surface. Surrounding each rod is a rod sheath made up of a protein matrix of enamelins. The area in between rods is called interrod enamel, or interrod cement. While it has the same crystal composition, crystal orientation is different, distinguishing rods from interrod enamel.^1-3

Figure 3. Enamel Structure and Composition

Figure 3. Enamel Structure and Composition

Minute spaces exist where crystals do not form between rods. Typically called pores, they contribute to enamel’s permeability, which allows fluid movement and diffusion to occur, but they also cause variations in density and hardness in the tooth, which can create spots that are more prone to demineralization – the loss of calcium and phosphate ions – when oral pH becomes too acidic and drops below 5.5. In demineralization, the crystalline structure shrinks in size, while pores enlarge.^3,4

Enamel is formed by epithelial cells called ameloblasts. Just before a tooth erupts from the gums, the ameloblasts are broken down, removing enamel’s ability to regenerate or repair itself. This means that when enamel is damaged by injury or decay, it cannot be restored beyond the normal course of remineralization. When a tooth erupts, it is also not fully mineralized. To completely mineralize the tooth, calcium, phosphorous, and fluoride ions are taken up from saliva to add a layer of 10 µm to 100 µm of enamel over time.³

There are conditions that can affect the formation of enamel and thus increase the risk of caries. These include the genetic disorder amelogenesis imperfecta, in which enamel is never completely mineralized and flakes off easily, exposing softer dentin to cariogenic bacteria.⁴Other conditions are linked with increased enamel demineralization, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and celiac disease. ^5,6